Rare-Earth Elements: Countries, Minerals, and Critical Role

You have probably held a smartphone or driven an electric vehicle without thinking about the 17 metallic elements inside that make them possible, as rare-earth elements (REEs) are the quiet backbone of modern technology—from permanent magnets in wind turbines to lasers in defense systems. This guide breaks down which countries control these critical minerals, their unique properties, and the geopolitical stakes behind the supply chain.

Number of rare-earth elements: 17 ·
Global reserves (2022): 120 million metric tons (USGS) ·
China’s share of global production: ~60% ·
Only operating US mine: Mountain Pass, California

The table below summarizes key facts about rare-earth elements, including their number, name origin, primary use, and production data.

Which country has the most rare earth elements?

China holds the largest reserves and dominates both mining and refining. According to Our World in Data, China accounted for more than two-thirds of global rare earth production in 2024. The United States, Myanmar, Thailand, and Australia were also significant producers.

Where do 98% of rare earth minerals come from?

The figure of 98% often refers to China’s near-total dominance in refining, not mining. Belfer Center reports that China refines about 90% of rare earth elements, based on International Energy Agency data. For ore extraction, China’s share was about 69% in 2023. The rest comes primarily from the US, Myanmar, and Australia.

The implication: raw reserves are spread across many countries, but the processing bottleneck is overwhelmingly Chinese.

The implication: control of processing is more critical than raw reserves in the rare-earth supply chain.

What are the top 5 rare earth minerals?

The most economically important rare earth minerals are bastnäsite, monazite, xenotime, lateritic ion-adsorption clays, and loparite. Bastnäsite and monazite are the primary sources of light rare earths, while xenotime and ion-adsorption clays are rich in heavy rare earths. These minerals contain varying proportions of the 17 REEs, and their distribution affects extraction economics.

For example, bastnäsite from Mountain Pass is rich in cerium, lanthanum, and neodymium—key for magnets. Monazite often contains thorium as a byproduct, raising environmental concerns.

What is special about rare earth elements?

Rare earths are chemically similar but exhibit unique magnetic, luminescent, and catalytic properties. They are essential for permanent magnets used in electric vehicles and wind turbines, for phosphors in LED screens, and for catalysts in petroleum refining.

Despite the name, they are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust—cerium is more common than copper. Their “rarity” stems from the difficulty of separating them into pure metals, a complex process dominated by China.

The catch: despite their abundance, the difficulty of separation makes them strategically scarce.

What rare earth elements are in the EU?

The European Union has identified 15 critical rare earth elements, including neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium. According to World Resources Institute, the EU relies heavily on imports, particularly from China. Efforts to develop domestic mining (e.g., in Sweden, Finland) and recycling programs are underway, but processing capacity remains minimal.

The trade-off: the EU’s green deal ambitions for wind turbines and EVs depend on a secure supply, yet no significant domestic refining exists.

Who owns the only rare earth mine in the US?

Mountain Pass in California is the only operating rare earth mine in the United States. It is owned by MP Materials, which acquired the site in 2017. The mine produces bastnäsite concentrate, which is then shipped to China for processing—a stark illustration of the refining gap.

In 2022, Mountain Pass produced about 43,000 metric tons of rare earth oxides, providing a small but critical domestic supply.

What this means: even the US mine is not independent; processing remains the bottleneck.

Country comparison: reserves, production, and refining

Five countries control the vast majority of mined output, but only one dominates the next step. This table shows the imbalance.

The pattern: despite significant reserves in many countries, refining capability is overwhelmingly concentrated in China.

The takeaway: while the confirmed facts are clear, the uncertainties highlight the need for investment in processing and recycling.

“Rare earth elements are critical materials for clean energy technologies, including electric vehicles and wind turbines.”

— U.S. Department of Energy NETL

“The United States is heavily reliant on imports for many mineral commodities, including rare earths.”

— USGS National Minerals Information Center

The data is clear: rare earths are not geologically rare, but they are strategically scarce. The concentration of refining in China creates a single point of failure for global supply chains. For policymakers in the US and EU, the choice is stark: invest heavily in domestic processing and recycling, or remain vulnerable to supply disruptions from Beijing.

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